Bible Course for the Laity - 2004, DVK, Bangalore

Full Reports on the Bible & Theology Course - 2004

3.2   Divisions of the Old Testament

Sections 3.2.1 and 3.2.2 of this module were covered in Module 3, Part 1.

3.2.3 Later Prophets

The Hebrew Bible groups the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the collection of the Twelve Minor Prophets under the title "Later Prophets". They are also called the "Writing Prophets", which is not exact because these prophets were preachers. The term "writing prophets" implies just that their preaching was recorded, and not that they wrote the books.

A little more on these prophets:

1. Isaiah: The book is divided into three parts, and they are from three different authors. These three parts are: [a] Proto-Isaiah (pre-exilic, before the Babylonian captivity, 8th century BC) (Chapters 1 - 39) [b] Deutero-Isaiah, exilic (Chapters 40 - 55) and [c] Trito-Isaiah, post-exilic (Chapters 56 - 66]. A complete manuscript of Isaiah's book was discovered in the Qumran cave. Proto-Isaiah is important for its three messianic prophecies (7:14, 9:1-6, 11:1-9); Deutero-Isaiah is significant in its theology of the Servant of the Lord (42:1-9, 49:1-6, 50:4-11, 52:13 - 53:12); and Trito-Isaiah is noted for its picture of the anointed (61:1-7).
2. Jeremiah: (7th century BC) Jeremiah is a prophet who had to play a very decisive role in the history of the southern kingdom during the tragic years preceding and succeeding the ruin of the southern kingdom. His role was very demanding (Jer 1:10). His promise of the New Covenant characterized by interiority (meaning "interior quality or character" or "inner life") and interpersonalism (meaning "relations between persons") (Jer 31:31-34) is very significant.
3. Ezekiel: Ezekiel was a prophet of action. He initiated a tradition of unworldly spirituality, related to the power of the spirit, the "heart of flesh" in the place of "heart of stone". He also envisages God as the Shepherd of Israel (Ezek 36:22-28).
4. Minor Prophets: It is a collection of twelve short books. They are named Minor Prophets not after their importance, but after the length of their writings -- their books are comparatively short. Some of them are pre-exilic and others post-exilic. To arrange them, We follow chronological order according to the Hebrew Canon: Amos, Hosea, Micah, Zephaniah, Nahum, Habakuk, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, Obadiah, Joel, and Jonah.

3.2.4 The Writings

It is likely that the Old testament had only two parts originally, namely the Torah and the Prophets. It was not until AD 100 and following the destruction of Jerusalem (in AD 70) that the Jewish authorities met in Jamnia to finalize the list of the Old Testament Jewish canon, naming this division of the Old Testament the "Writings". The books of the Writings are: Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ruth, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes (Qoheleth), Lamentations, Esther, Daniel, 1&2 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah.

Psalms: The Psalms is an entirely different group of writings. They are "songs of Israel" composed through a long period in which the inner reality of Israel is expressed through praise, thanksgiving, laments, and hope. They were considered important even before they were taken into the canon.

Job: The book of Job belongs to the category of Wisdom literature, where the wise man tries to analyze the problem of the suffering of the innocent people. This book is a masterpiece in world literature.

Proverbs: Another book in the category of Wisdom literature, Proverbs is the most representative work of the Israelite Wisdom literature. King Solomon is believed to have composed 3000 proverbs (2 Kings 5:12). The book is also patterned on the Egyptian Wisdom literature. Proverbs is about practical wisdom of success in life. Wisdom is something divine, which should be practiced by human beings in order to lead a good life.

Ruth: In the book of Ruth, we learn the edifying story of how a Gentile wife can be an ideal one. The book was written at a time when Ezra and Nehemiah, following the Babylonian captivity, insisted that the Jews send away their Gentile wives for fear that they would contaminate the Jewish religion. Ruth, the ideal wife, became the great grandmother of Jesus (Mathew 1:5).

Song of Songs: Put simply, it means "the best song". Traditionally understood as mystic songs by God to Israel, by Christ to the Church, and by God to the soul, these songs belong to an entirely different category. Song of Songs is a book celebrating human love within the God-given gift of sexuality with its beauty and charm and also limitations. Sexuality is a sacred gift and a sacred task given to all humans by God. However, it is not the ultimate love, and therefore, it has its own limitations. The ultimate love is the love of God, and it is towards God's love that every love, including the sexual love, should be guided. In the context of today's "sexplosion" or "sexual explosion", this message is highly significant.

Ecclesiastes: Known also as Qoheleth (one who gathers together, or a preacher), Ecclesiastes is another Wisdom book. This book represents another stage of wisdom thinking, and is about the enigma of life, the futility of things that are human in nature. Knowledge, wealth, love, and life itself are all illusory. Life is no more than a succession of unrelated and meaningless events.

Lamentations: Written probably after the fall of Jerusalem in 587, it is in the form of a dirge for the dead. It is also known as the "Lamentations of Jeremiah".

Esther: The book of Esther portrays the deliverance of the Jews settled in Persia (now Iran), through the actions of a young Jewish woman who later became a queen. The book represents the exaggerated nationalism of Jews, seen in out times also. This attitude of the Jews is seen as a defensive mechanism.

Daniel: Daniel is not a prophetic book, and contains no preaching by any prophet. It is an apocalyptic (of revelation) book. The book is written by an author who concealed his identity under a pseudonym to sustain the faith and hope among the Jews who were being persecuted by Antiochus Epiphanes in Syrian. However, the story is developed as if it all took place during the time of the Babylonian invasion, centuries earlier.

1&2 Chronicles: The Old Testament contains a second group of historical books that in largely duplicate and ultimately extend the Deuteronomistic history with Joshua and end with 2 Kings. These are the two books of Chronicles.

Ezra: The book of Ezra follows the two books of Chronicles. It is probably written by the same author as 1 & 2 Chronicles.

Nehemiah: The fourth book of the second group of historical books, written probably by the same author as 1 & 2 Chronicles.

Originally all these four books of the second group of historical books were in the form of one book in Hebrew, and this book was composed around the beginning of the Greek period (BC 300). It was authored by a group of priestly people. In the book, "The Temple of Jerusalem" is the centre of the whole history. The authors remind the readers that the nation can live truly only if it remains faithful to God through the observance of the Torah (laws).

The books of Ezra and Nehemiah is a continuation of the Chronicler's work. Ezra is known as the "Father of Judaism" (sometimes Ezekiel is also called so.) These books are significant in learning about the history of the Jewish Restoration after the Babylonian captivity. These two books are likely to have been written before the Chronicles.

3.2.5 Other Books in the Greek Bible (LXX)

The Greek translation of the Bible is also called LXX. Written for the use of Jews of the Diaspora, it includes some other additional books, which are part of the canon of the Catholic Bible also. These books are known as "Deuterocanonical" because their inclusion was finalized only in the 16th century at The Council of Trent. Protestants call these books "Apocrypha".

Let's get to know these books in brief:

Judith: The name Judith means "the Jewess" or "Lady Jew" or "Jewish woman". The book of Judith is the story of a victory by the chosen people over their enemies, who are Assyrians, through the intervention of a woman by name Judith. She overcomes the cowardice of the Jewish nation. She rebukes the leading men of their city for their lack of faith in God. Through her faith and trust in God, and with her charm and with, Judith kills the enemy king and saves her people. This story is not real history; it was written during 2nd century BC an atmosphere filled with nationalism and religious fervour as a result of the Maccabean revolt.

Tobit: The book of Tobit presents a domestic story. It is an edifying tale that emphasizes alms giving and duties towards the dead. The book best depicts true family life. Marriage is given a highly sacred status. The divine benevolence is revealed through the angels referred to in the story.

1 & 2 Maccabees: These books outline the Jewish struggle for religious and political independence against the Seleucid kings. The title of the book is derived from the name Maccabaeus, which was conferred on the story's central figure, Judas (1 Mac 2:4), and later passed on to his brothers. The narrative covers the period from BC 175 until BC 134. Despite the details of the battle and its political intrigue, the author means to write a religious history. The nation's distress is a punishment for sin. The story is about the struggle between Gentile infiltration and ancestral customs. God is on the side of the Jews. It was a liberation struggle in which God protect a family committed to the cause of the whole nation. 2 Maccabees is important for the affirmation of the resurrection of the dead (2 Mac 7:9; 14:46), sanctions in the afterlife (2 Mac 6:26), prayer for the dead (2 Mac 12:38; 12:41-46), the spiritual fruit of martyrdom (2 Mac 6:6, 16:8, 7:41), and the intercession of the saints (2 Mac 1:12-16). Other writings of the Old Testament had left these teachings vague.

Wisdom of Solomon: The book was written by a pious and wise Jew, devoted to the God of the ancestors and proud of belonging to a holy people. King Solomon lived in 10th century BC. The name of Solomon is added to the book to give weight and acceptance to the author's writing. The author is not a philosopher or theologian, but a typical sage of Israel. He commands wisdom, born of God, obtained by prayer, mainspring of all uprightness, source of every good. The author makes use of the Platonic (spiritual) distinction of body from soul and the doctrine of the immortality of the soul. this life is only a preparation for another in which the upright live with God and the wicked are punished. There is no allusion (reference) to resurrection, except in a spiritualized form. The book of Wisdom was active in the whole work of creation and it carries history to its goal.

Ecclesiasticus (Sirach): This book is also called Ben Sira. Written in 2nd century BC, when Hellenization (attempts to assimilated Greek civilization) was sweeping into Judaism, the author marshals all the forces of tradition. The book recommends pursuit of wisdom, and zeal for the law, along with devotion to the temple with its liturgy and a high regard for the priestly office. Wisdom comes from God and it is rooted in the fear of the Lord. The original contribution of the book is the identification of Wisdom with the Law of Moses. The author meditates on the history of salvation and reviews its great personalities from Enoch to Nehemiah. He is critical of many of them, including Solomon, and only a few were really good.

Baruch: Baruch, Jeremiah's secretary, is the author of the book Baruch. He wrote the book in Babylon after he was deported to Babylon and sent to Jerusalem. In the Greek Bible, Lamentations (Writings) separates the better of Jeremiah from Baruch, but the Vulgate (Latin Bible) adds the Letter to Baruch as the last chapter. The Letter is an apologetic argument against idolatry. This book provides us with valuable information about the Jewish communities in the Dispersion and throws light on the ways by which their religious life was sustained.

Others: In the Catholic canon, the following sections are also considered Deuterocanonical, although they are not so in the Jewish canon:
Daniel 3:24-90; Daniel 13 & 14
Some parts of Esther are found only in the Greek Bible. Jerome placed the Greek text after the Hebrew text. The attempt for a logical structure by combining the Hebrew and the Greek resulted in the "disorderly sequence" of the book in NRSV, beginning with Chapter 11.

The third part of Module-3 deals with the "Divisions of the New Testament".

Module-3: A GLANCE THROUGH THE BOOKS OF THE BIBLE

Module 3, Part 1   Module 3, Part 2   Module 3, Part 3
Bible Course Index   Bible Course Outline

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